Pesantren have been hermitages and retreats for pupils where they train as Indonesian Muslims for six to nine years. Afterward, they often return to their villages and establish new pesantren which follow the educational system and practices of the pesantren from which they graduated Hefner ; Azra, Afrianty, and Hefner This practice disseminates the traditionalist Muslim education and values in Indonesia.
Sarongs are worn in pesantren , as well as for other socio-religious occasions outside pesantren. Sarongs, batik shirts or koko with black peci hats on the head are a common fashion style for Indonesian men on important occasions.
As described above, sanad as a chain of knowledge transmission, is one of the foremost qualities of NU. Some of them simply memorise the full chain. Some write down the sanad in their personal customised diaries or books. Some even draw the sanad beautifully in a chart and display it on the wall of their house. The chart shows at least twenty-eight chain links of transmission of religious knowledge. They are all important names, but the most significant names and related to the discussion of NU are given in yellow.
Realistically, however, there are a number of other names in each chain which continue the same chain eye in different levels or generations. Moreover, there are other special sanad s based on particular kitab kuning lit.
Similarly, this is also the case for millions of sanads for other kitab kuning and Arabic manuals traditionally read and learned in the pesantren of NU across Indonesia. Several lembaga or institutions within PBNU are formed in order to optimise the running of the organisation.
The lembaga work as departmental institutions and serve as policy implementers in dealing with certain community groups or any groups that require special treatment. In addition, PBNU also have several semi-autonomous organisations serving particular community religious interests. Since it was founded in , NU has been primarily a socio-religious organisation.
The Qanun Asasi of NU has no single point which explicitly intersects with politics. With very large numbers of traditional followers, especially in Java, this enables NU to be present as a political power in the archipelago Ismail NU initially intersected with politics when it issued a decree on land defence in It stated that the Archipelago is a land of Muslims.
The majority of the Muktamar participants rejected the idea and wanted to keep NU as a socio-religious organisation. It united and coordinated the voice of Muslims in the Archipelago to argue against Dutch policies, such as the marriage ordinance and military service for Muslims.
The Japanese occupation changed the political atmosphere and sponsored the foundation of Masyumi or Majelis Syura Muslimin Indonesia Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims in when Mbah Hasyim became the national chairperson. The decision was then brought to the nineteenth century Muktamar from 28 April—1 May in Palembang. The Muktamar supported the move and recommended that NU become a political party.
In parliament, seven NU members left the Masyumi faction and formed an independent bloc Feith — During the process of withdrawing from Masyumi and becoming a political party, the NU Party only had a short time to prepare for the election.
The NU Party eventually took part in the election and won 45 seats Since then, NU has been a socio-religious organisation. As described above, NU has a lembaga or board, which is in charge of answering religious Islamic matters arising within Muslim societies in Indonesia.
This was an intellectual arena for kyais in order to grant legal standings of religious matters. In many regional meetings, the LINO has been set up as a regular meeting for learning, where a kyai presents and discusses an Arabic work in front of the board and members of PWNU regional board.
It is significant and inventive for at least two reasons. LBM has successfully ended this practice by offering answers to religious Islamic matters. If this is impossible to be observed individually, a collective feature of these authorities would be an option. These are the main features of an LBM. The issues or questions must be individually identified as local, regional, or national jurisdictions. LBM in the regional boards, for example, discuss all questions and issues from that particular region.
When it is considered national, it must be referred to the LBM central board. Similarly, when it is a local issue, the regional board will discuss and issue the decision. All discussions must be conducted in a forum called Bahtsul Masail. However, if there is a new case, their task extends to ilhaq al-masail bi nazhairi-ha.
Due to its important status, Syuriyah is the NU board, which is responsible for organising the Bahtsul Masail Hosen The issues discussed in Bahtsul Masail are actual matters arising within Muslim communities in Indonesia.
Issues can also be raised by the PBNU which might consider particular matters important. Before coming into the Bahtsul Masail, they would read them and prepare their answers. The PBNU then discusses issues in detail and makes decisions. When providing decisions to issues being discussed, the Bahtsul Masail usually applies a number of methods including qawli literal , ilhaqi comparative method , and manhaji by methodology. Meanwhile, the manhaji method requires deep research and follows the method of istinbat al-ahkam of the four madhhabs , for problems that are unresolved by the qawli and ilhaqi methods.
This explanation could be broken down into at least three steps or processes. The intention is not to create a negative distinction of Indonesian Islam from the rest of the Muslim world. This is to highlight that the fact that Indonesian Islam shares its theology with the rest of the Muslim world Ismail Behind the concept of Indonesian Islam is an appreciation of localities, including the ways of life, cultures, traditions, and practices that are not in contrast to Islamic principles.
In this regard, NU accommodates local cultures and practices as long as they do not harm the fundamental principles of Islam. One of the most visible demonstrations of this idea are the local customs of wearing sarongs, peci Indonesian black hats , batik traditionally decorated Indonesian shirts or koko Shanghai-style shirts during prayers.
These factors triggered the neglect of Indonesian Islam by various international analysts. In addition, the absence of Indonesia as a participant in any of the Muslim world contestations is another reason why Indonesia has been neglected.
The uniqueness of Indonesia that has been most visible, compared to other parts of the Muslim world, and which Samuel Huntington insisted that the clash of civilisations neglected, is the inclination to accept modernity and democracy, to voice pluralism and religious tolerance, and to accentuate the gracious and the merciful sides of God Inoguchi The cultural movements which have been dominating the discourses of Indonesian Islam since the course of the twentieth century, have become the main indicators.
In addition, significant actions and movements of neo-modernist Islam in Indonesia, have become another trigger for the promotion of Indonesian Islam. These cultural and religious movements are the consequences of a unique approach to understanding Islamic texts and local cultures, traditions, and practices.
The approach has a dual role; to heighten social ethics and individual piety, while at the same time, to refrain from highlighting unnecessary differences in the Muslim world. In this regard, Abdurrahman Wahid — , three-term chairperson of NU — and the fourth President of Indonesia, has been regarded as the foremost pioneer of neo-modernism of Islam in Indonesia Barton In the wake of the Iranian revolution and its influence on Indonesian youth, Abdurrahman Wahid Gus Dur rejected Western analysts who believe that Middle Eastern fundamentalism had a strong and deep influence on Indonesian students studying in the Middle Eastern universities.
Abdurrahman argued that Islam and Arab culture are two different things. In addition, Abdurrahman successfully highlighted the traditions of Islamic pluralism in Indonesia through his writings which emphasise theological, philological and historical approaches in explaining Indonesian Islam. According to him, the development of Islamic cultures is the product of acculturation between Islamic core values and cultural qualities of archipelagic Indonesia.
This is the context when he argues that the harmonious life of religions in Indonesia provides strong traditional roots for modern pluralism Barton Following this idea, there is a strong argument that Islam should be considered on two levels, namely on the theological and cultural levels.
In terms of theology, Islam is a universal religion which works harmoniously in any given time and place. On another similar level, Islam is a manifestation and expression of religiosity that can be married to local cultures and practices. On the basis of that principle, and with the support of another principle that habit or culture is a potential source of law, NU has been in the avant garde by advocating for local practices that are not in contradiction to the principles of Islam.
There has been a common understanding that Islam must be friendly to local practices. For NU , the indigenisation of Islam is necessary, to avoid the polarisation of religion Islam and culture. In this regard, indigenisation is not syncretism as it simply considers localities within the process of the application of Islamic teachings.
From the time of these poets to the end of the classical era around CE poetry, in fact, became a public spectacle, with recitals being often heard in the places of power.
The classical period came to an end with the death of the strongly anti-religious Ma'arri, and from this period onward it became associated more and more with Sufism, and Sufi orders.
Most scholars of Islamic poetry would call Jalal al-Din Rumi the greatest Muslim poet to have ever lived. In fact, one could make the case that he is among the greatest poets to have lived regardless of religion or ethnicity. Rumi was a prominent Sufi influenced by al-Ghazali whose spiritual, ethical and poetic works have a deeply affecting clarity and humility.
He influenced the German poet and philosopher Goethe, and through Goethe much European Romantic poetry. Indeed, even today books of his poetry are widely read, and are very easy to get hold of in English. In the United States, in fact, Rumi was the best-selling poet throughout the s. Rumi was born to a highly educated father allegedly of noble descent in the early thirteenth century. Whilst still a child he was forced to moved from city to city, each time being forced too flee from the military activities of the Mongols who had destroyed his childhood town of Balkh now in Afghanistan.
This early experience forever affected him, and his writing as a result always had a keen desire for justice and fair rule - as one can see from the opening of his book Discourses:. Happy is the prince who stands at the poor man's door, and wretched is the poor man who stands at the door of a prince.
Rumi's aptitude for learning was spotted early, and as young as twelve he had been given to study some of the great mystical, ethical, mathematical and astronomical texts of the day. For that reason he initially followed his father into a life of scholarship, taking over his father's position at just 24 after settling in Konya now in Turkey.
This life of scholarship was set on a rather different path, however, when Rumi had an encounter with a wandering Sufi named Shams at the age of The two individuals developed a close friendship; Rumi even claimed that he found in Shams the image of the Divine Beloved. They spent a number of years living closely together, and during this time Rumi became less focused on the tenets of Islamic law and engulfed by the desire for God's love. He began to recite poetry which reflected this desire; in the following example, for instance, he likens the human individual to a reed-flute nay , ready to be filled with the flame of love:.
Hearken to this Reed forlorn, Breathing ever since 'twas torn From its rushy bed, a strain Of impassioned love and pain. Wouldst thou learn how lovers bleed, Hearken, hearken to the Reed!
His life became dedicated to religious worship, and the creation of new ways of expressing his love for the world, for others, and for God. During this time he developed - supposedly after being inspired by the rhythmic hammering of the local goldsmiths - a form of whirling religious dancing now known by the word Sema. Rumi did not reject Islamic law; but he did, like al-Ghazali before him, begin to criticise some jurists fuqaha for seeing nothing in religion but strict observance of ritual.
He and al-Ghazali shared the concern that if Islam became all about ritual observance it would lose its sense of purpose; it would become a hollow shell, and inevitably as a result make ethical mistakes. This position gave some of his poetry a strong moral energy, and it was fiercely critical at times. On this wise did the Jew tell his dream.
Oh, there was many a Jew whose end was praiseworthy. Do not spurn any infidel, for it may be hoped that he will die a Muslim. What knowledge have you of the close of his life, that you should once and for all avert your face from him? However, the fact that he turned away from his previous life still displeased some people. Many of his former disciples resented the fact that all his time was now being spent with Shams. Rumi's companion eventually disappeared, as mysteriously as he had arrived; some have speculated that he was murdered.
This sent Rumi into a deep sadness. He began to become lost in the recitation of his poetry, whirling around in a trance-like state. He kept teaching, however, often in the face of continued personal jealousies, and his followers went on to found the Mevlevi order, one of the best known Sufi orders. It is grossly mistaken though to think of Rumi as a woeful poet. Despite his tough childhood and the loss of his good friend the vast majority of his work is characterised by the affirmation of life in all its beauty.
Most of it comes across If anyone asks you how the perfect satisfaction of all our sexual wanting will look, lift your face and say,. Like this. When someone mentions the gracefulness of the night-sky, climb up on the roof and dance and say,. If anyone wants to know what "spirit" is, or what "God's fragrance" means, lean your head toward him or her. Keep your face there close.
When someone quotes the old poetic image about clouds gradually uncovering the moon, slowly loosen knot by knot the strings of your robe. The Iranian Safavid Empire — is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia.
Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions, particularly to the textile arts. In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry that used specialized design and manufacturing techniques on quality fibers such as silk.
The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of graphical perspective.
Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became one of the most popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document the presence of Islamic textiles in European homes during that time. Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments. The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam.
The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace. Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts, such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production.
Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other purposes besides wearing, such as wrapping the Quran. Javanese court batik : The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam.
Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Islamic Art. Search for:. Introduction to Islamic Art. Islamic Art Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by culturally Islamic populations.
Learning Objectives Identify the influences and the specific attributes of Islamic art. Key Takeaways Key Points Islamic art is not art of a specific religion, time, place, or of a single medium. Instead it spans some years, covers many lands and populations, and includes a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy , painting, glass, ceramics , and textiles, among others.
Calligraphy and architectural elements are given important religious significance in Islamic art. Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles ; Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought by various nomadic incursions, and Chinese influences appear on Islamic painting, pottery , and textiles.
It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language. Islamic Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles and the principal example is the mosque.
Learning Objectives Describe the development of mosques, and their different features during different periods and dynasties. Key Terms mosque : A place of worship for Muslims, corresponding to a church or synagogue in other religions, often having at least one minaret.
In Arabic: masjid. Learning Objectives Describe the art of Islamic glass. Key Takeaways Key Points Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief.
Lustre painting uses techniques similar to lustreware in pottery and dates back to the 8th century in Egypt; it became widespread in the 12th century. Key Terms luxury arts : Highly decorative goods made of precious materials for the wealthy classes.
Mosque lamp : Produced in Egypt, c. Islamic Calligraphy Calligraphic design was omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, and is seen in all types of art including architecture and the decorative arts. Learning Objectives Explain the purpose and characteristics of Islamic calligraphy. Key Takeaways Key Points In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry , it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art.
The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script. Besides Quranic verses, other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Key Terms Kufic script : The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy, noted for its angular form.
Learning Objectives Discuss the origin and development of Islamic manuscript painting. Key Takeaways Key Points The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts. Islamic manuscript painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century when it was influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces.
The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest coffee-table books and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life. Key Terms Mongols : An umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan in the 13th century.
Islamic Ceramics Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics that reached heights unmatched by other cultures. Learning Objectives Discuss how developments such as tin-opacified glazing and stonepaste ceramics made Islamic ceramics some of the most advanced of its time. After the Revolution, these works grew in quantity and reflected the bravery and self-sacrifice of the generation of the Revolution.
The traditional and religious emotions of the people opened up a new horizon for Persian poetry and literature and paved the way for the introduction of new subjects, theme and even vocabulary into the language and literature of Iran. The poetry of Gholamreza Dabiran is a characteristic example of the poetry of the Revolution, in which all literary features and rhetorical figures are reflected. Online since:.
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